Understanding cultural references in japanese anime and manga

Ever wondered why anime characters have big eyes or wear beads? This article gives you an insight into Japanese culture, as seen in anime and manga!
Most Japanese anime is, obviously, made for a Japanese market, meaning American viewers will be unfamiliar with much of what they see. While some of this unfamiliarity adds to the pleasure of watching, some facets of Japanese culture could stand to be explained.

The Eyes: The large, shiny eyes that have become a staple of anime style are actually more a product of history than of culture. In the past, characters in American and European cartoons, such as Betty Boop and Felix the Cat, had disproportionately large eyes. This style was emulated by Tezuka Osamu, one of the most influential founding fathers of anime. Today, this distinctive eye style has become a matter of the animators' preference. Large eyes often appear on women and young children to make them appear more innocent. Although most American viewers are familiar only with this particular eye style, many of the characters in cartoons shown in Japan possess much more normal eyes.

Religion: worshipping at a Shinto shrine

A description of how to worship at a Shinto shrine, as well as a description of the religion of Shinto in general.

When it comes to the old religions from the Orient, very few have the mystery and mysticism associated with them that Japanese religion of Shinto does. A religion without a founder, written scriptures, or body of law, Shinto has been described in the past as a mix of nature worship, shamanism, fertility rites, divination, and hero worship.
Shinto dates back to around the 8th century BC, while the Yamato dynasty still ruled over Japan. The name "Shinto" is derived from the Chinese words "shin tao", which means "The Way of the Gods", and reflects a lot of the views that Shinto holds about the world in general. Practitioners of Shinto believe that the world is inhabited by spirits known as "kami", who can either be the guardians of a clan or area or are simply the spirit of an object or creature.
One of the most obvious forms of Shinto worship are the Shinto shrines, which have become synonymous with Oriental mysticism. The shrines can be simple or ornate, and are built out of tribute to the kami that takes residence within them. To worship at a shrine is to pay respect to the kami within, and to pray that they will grant your sincere request.

The Native American Anasazi Indians

The Native American Anasazi Indians, the most studied prehistoric Native American culture in the Southwest, once inhabited Arizona, Colorado, Utah and New Mexico.

The Anasazi (pronounced ah-nah-SAH-zee) were a prehistoric tribe of Native Americans that lived in the Four Corners area of the southwest United States, encompassing what is now northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, southern Utah and southwestern Colorado. The Anasazi, who inhabited this area from about 200 to 1300 AD, descended from a prehistoric group of nomadic hunter-gatherers, dubbed the “Clovis” people, who hunted many animals such as mammoth, bear and rabbit, possibly the first to migrate to the continent. It has been accepted that humans first came to North America around 10,000 years ago, but new sites found on the American continents suggests a date twice that old. At about 1000 BC, some of the nomads began to form permanent settlements and soon came the birth of the Anasazi culture.

Two hundred years before the birth of Christ, the Anasazi began cultivating maize. Horticulture became increasingly important in the growing Anasazi culture and at 1200, the cultivation of maize, squash and beans had become a major food source, possibly more important than hunting. Due to the harsh environments of the deserts the Anasazi inhabited, much of their time was invested in feeding themselves. Agriculture was no easy feat for the Anasazi, rainfall came sporadically between draughts, some of which lasted for years. Most of the wild game in the area were small and thus hard to catch, so the men spent much of the day hunting for meat. The women also labored, weaving cloth by hand and grinding maize into flour with stones. Examinations of the remains of the skeletons of many elderly Anasazi women show severe arthritis caused by constant bending, kneeling and grinding

The Pawnee Indians

Find out about the customs, culture and history of the Pawnees.

The Pawnee Nation had existed in relative peace and tranquillity in the wilds of Nebraska for hundreds of years prior to the arrival of the white man. At their peak they numbered about 10,000 people. The nation was divided into four distinct bands: the Chaui, the Kitikahki, the Petahauirita and the Skidi. The bands lived as independent units.

Around 1850 the Pawnee nation had been decimated by an outbreak of smallpox and cholera. By the dawn of the 20th Century the total number of Pawnees totalled no more than 600.

The Pawnee lived in dome shaped huts. These homes were covered with earth and had a central pit for a fire. The buildings were up to 15 feet in height. Often extended families would cohabit together in large huts. The villages would be situated along a river. The advent of the horse allowed the farming Pawnees to chase the buffalo. When the people were on the buffalo hunt they would live in tipis. Tipis were large, with about 11 lodge poles. They could house up to 18 people. The tipi had a smoke hole for cooking.

Information on the Zuni Indian tribe

Learn about the culture, the history, the way of life and the current situation of these ancient people.The Zuni are an Indian tribe who reside on the Arizona / New Mexico border, along the Zuni River. Physical evidence of permanent dwellings date their existence in the region back as far as 700 C.E. Their first encounter with the white man came in 1540 when the Spanish met up with these people. At the time the Zuni – who refer to themselves as Ashiwi – were living in six separate villages.

The life for these agricultural people revolves around their religious beliefs. They have a cycle of religious ceremonies which takes precedence over all else. Their religious beliefs are centered around the three most powerful deities – Earth Mother, Sun Father and Moonlight-Giving Mother. The Sun is especially worshipped. In fact the Zuni words for daylight and life are the same word. The Sun is, therefore, seen as the giver of life. Each person’s life is marked by important ceremonies to celebrate their coming to certain milestones in their existence. Birth, coming of age, marriage and death are especially celebrated.

The Sauk and Fox Indians

Learn about the culture, history and way of life of these native American peoples.

The origins of the Sauk and Fox nation can be traced to the St. Lawrence Seaway in north eastern Canada. With the coming of the white man, coupled with invasions from the Hurons and other native tribes, however, they were forced to move to modern day Wisconsin. They settled in the village of Saukenak, meaning ‘River of the Rock.’ Here they built homes and planted fields of corn, beans, squash and pumpkins. They found the soil here rich and conducive to the growing of their crops. In this valley could be found a plentiful supply of game, with everything from deer and bison to small game. The streams were also teaming with fish and beaver.

When the Sauk first encountered the French in the mid 1600’s they numbered about 6,500 people. The Fox at the same time numbered about 5000 people. At this time, however, both tribes had endured inter tribal warfare for over a hundred years, as well as a number of epidemics. Today there are three Federally recognised Sauk and Fox tribes: the Sauk and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi number about 1,100. The Sauk and Fox Tribe of Missouri numbers about 400 and the Sauk and Fox Tribe of Indians (Oklahoma) has about 2,200 members.

The Fox became bitter enemies of the French. Even though the French were to enjoy peacable relations with all of the other Algonquin tribes, the Fox were antagonistic from their very first encounter. By about 1730 their numbers had been all but wiped out in fierce warfare with the French. Survivors joined with the Sauk and from then on they became the Sauk and Fox Nation.

Who were the Kiowa Indian tribe?

Learn about the cultire, history, way of life and current situation of this ancient people.

The Kiowa Indians were originally dwellers of the Columbia River in the Kootenay Region of British Columbia, Canada. Their first interaction with the white man came in about 1700, when British and French traders happened upon them. Around 1700 the Kiowa moved to the Upper Yellowstone, in what is now western Montana. Shortly thereafter a dispute between two prominent chiefs resulted in one band withdrawing from the main body and going to the northwest.

The main body of Kiowa traveled to the southeast, where they came into contact with the Crow Indians. Forming an alliance with the Crow, the Kiowa acquired two things that were to become indispensable in the future life – the horse and the sacred Sun Dance. The Kiowa settled to the east of the Crow in the Black Hills around 1780. The Kiowa, however, were a migratory people. After a time they continued to move through the Western States. They ended up on the southern plains and became allies to the Comanche.

Like most Native American peoples the Kiowa were deeply religious. After acquiring the Sun Dance from the Crows, this ceremony became the center of their worship. The Sun Dance was celebrated once per year. It would bring together all of the Kiowa people, who, up until then, would live in small autonomous bands. The Sun Dance, then, served as the catalyst for an annual renewal of tribal connections. It would be accompanied by marriage ceremonies, tribal councils and family reunions. The Sun Dance would be preceded by a great tribal bison hunt.

Discover africa

Africa is the second largest continent in the world with over 500 million people.
Africa is the second largest continent in the world with Asia being the largest. Africa contains many countries with warm sunshine, green trees, blooming flowers, ravishing landscapes, and some of the world's most beautiful animals. Africa is made up of large deserts, wild jungles, and boundless grasslands. Did you know that Africa covers one-fifth of the earth's land surface?

How Big is Africa?
Africa is over three times the size of the United States and has twice the people. From north to south, it stretches about 5,000 miles long. Africa is located south of Europe and the Middle East with its northern coast lying on the Mediterranean Sea. To the east of the continent lies the Indian Ocean and to the west lies the Atlantic Ocean. The equator passes through Africa just south of its middle.

Who Lives in Africa?
Three out of four people living in Africa are black, but there are also many Arabs, Asians, Europeans, and mixed races. But Africa is not without problems, and its people rank among the poorest in the world. Many of the people are starving; thus, there are thousands of deaths each year.

African mask symbolism

African masks are unique to each tribe and their shape and accessories have special meanings for the different cultures.

Masks have been used by the world's diverse cultures for centuries. The ancient Greek actors used masks for special theatrical representations. Eighteenth century Europeans frequented masked balls where the masks were elaborately decorated with beads and feathers. The Chinese still use masks in their traditional dances. African cultures have perhaps the richest mask traditions. In African societies masks are used for funeral ceremonies and harvest dances. They figure prominently in the right of passages for young men, and have become a source of pride in modern-day celebrations. Masks are unique to each specific African society and their shape and accessories have special meanings for the different cultures.

One of the most abundant types of masks among African cultures is the animal representation. Animal masks connect people with the spirit world that traditional African beliefs say inhabit the forests and open savannas. The Bwa and Nuna people of Burkina Faso call on the spirits to ward off destruction. Crocodiles, hawks and buffalo are the most frequently carved animal masks. Masked dances are held on market day, during initiations and at funerals to honor the spirits and evoke their blessings. The Nuna hawk mask carvers used an animal-like snout to distinguish it from the hawk mask of the nearby Bwa, who use a distinctly rounded mouth. The wings of both are carved with geometric patterns to represent moral principles. The zigzag lines refer to the often-difficult path of their ancestors. The checkerboard patterns show the forces of polar opposites such as light and dark, knowledge and ignorance, and men and women.

Marriage tradition in africa: lobola

Lobola is a century-old tradition, still common throughout Africa. This system requires that a price be paid for the right to marry a women. This practice is still used extensively in contemporary African society and has raised both critical and supportive voices.

Lobola is an age-old African custom that is as alive today as it was 100 years ago. Both the families of the bride and groom would be scandalized if they did not adhere to this custom. On the surface, Lobola is a complex and very formal process of negotiation between the two families to come to a mutual agreement of the price that the groom has to pay in order to marry the bride. This may seem like a purchase and a sale, but this custom is the very opposite of a commercial transaction.

What makes Lobola so important for marriage is that it is based on a process that brings the two families together. Mutual respect and dignity are woven into the process, and the love between the man and woman is expanded to include the immediate and extended families. But, like all traditional customs, it is open to abuse and distortion in the modern world.

Women's initiation rites in Africa

African female initiation ceremonies are rites of passage for girls entering womanhood, and are usually a public annoucement of the girl's eligibility for marriage.

Nearly every culture in the world ritualizes the important milestones throughout life. Birth, marriage and death are typically marked by special ceremonies. The final passage from childhood to adulthood also figures prominently among various ethnic groups worldwide. Hispanic cultures have quincineras for their daughters. Jews hold Bar Mitzvahs and Bat Mitzvahs for their children. And in America we celebrate with Sweet Sixteen parties.

In Africa, initiation ceremonies are rooted in deep, conservative traditions. For African females, ceremonies marking their entry into the realm of adults are also a public announcement to the community that she is ready to be married. African life revolves around the family and therefore female African initiation ceremonies tend to focus heavily on the preparation of young girls to be good wives and excellent mothers.

Young girls from the Krobo ethnic group, which is dispersed across Ghana, perform the Dipo ceremony. The official ceremony lasts about five days, but pre-ritual preparation requires three weeks. The mother of a young girl selects a ‘ritual mother’ for her daughter. Like a favored aunt, the ritual mother prepares the young girl for her future role as a wife and mother. The young girl learns the art of cooking and household management (a skill she’s been performing beside her own mother since she could walk), music, dance and beautification. The girl is encouraged to leave behind her jaunty, carefree childhood ways and adopt the stature of a woman full of dignity and grace.

Kwanza tablescapes

Kwanzaa, a seven day event beginning on December 26th, is a culturally diverse, fun and family-oriented celebration. Use some of these easy and inexpensive home decor and tablescape ideas to represent, teach and spice up your home for the occassion.

Kwanzaa, a seven-day event beginning on December 26th, is a holiday being celebrated by a growing number of cultures. Influenced by traditional African harvest festivals, meaning “first fruits,” it is a celebration of community, culture and family. Each day of the celebration symbolize the seven principles, or Nguzo Saba, (1) Umoja (unity), (2) Kujichagulia (self-determination), (3) Ujima (collective work and responsibility), (4) Ujamaa (cooperative economics), (5) Nia (purpose), (6) Kuumba (creativity) and (7) Imani (faith). A time for family and fun, it is also a time for remembrance, and reflection upon one’s purpose and the values considered ideal for one's community.

Whether celebrating for the first time or the tenth time, Kwanzaa symbolism and celebrations can be represented with home décor most likely with products on hand. Try a few of these ideas to dress up your home.

Traditional Kwanzaa colors and their symbolism are: Black, symbolizing the African-American people; Red, representing struggle; and green, which symbolizes hope for a better future. When decorating with fabrics and accessories think along these color lines.

The seven principles of Kwanzaa are usually represented by a Kinara, a long, candleholder for seven candles. Three green and three red candles are placed on each side of a single black candle and lit alternately each day during the celebration. Many times, young crafters create the candles with home dipping kits to learn and have fun with the principles of Kwanzaa.

Place a straw place mat on a tabletop and center the Kinara, add baskets or bowls filled with vegetable and fruit or dried ears of corn to emphasize the relationship of Kwanzaa with the African harvest. Since family and remembrance play an important role to the celebration, add photographs of loved ones past and present to the table or throughout the house.

A child just learning about Kwanzaa would be thrilled with a nightstand decorated with a black, red or green tablecloth and a holiday figurine dressed in Afro-centric clothing. Decorate a small tabletop tree with black and gold, the colors of Africa and small African ornaments such as masks or animals.

Create a “Purpose Board” in an entryway or on a hallway table. Hang a blank corkboard on the wall and provide slips of paper, blank and gold markers and thumbtacks. As each person passes the “Purpose Board” have them write a note representing their own purpose such as, “make someone smile today,” “inspire someone younger today,” “not make my sister cry today.”

For dinner décor ideas, line a large basket with red, black and green napkins before serving bread or rolls. Wrap silverware in napkins adding a ring of beads for a special presentation at the table. Or, try coordinating a table setting such as a black placement, topped with a red plate and a green wine or water glass.

A simple draping of fabric in the symbolic colors over the windows, over a chair or used as pillows will add color and holiday dressings without too much expense or effort.

Ribbon cascading from the back of dining room chairs, chandeliers, drawer pulls or wrapped around towels will add a Kwanzaa reminder throughout the house.

The emphasis is family, from the roots of the tree to the new buds and the purpose the tree plays. Enjoy, have fun together and throughout the learning process.

Traditional Indian clothing

Traditional Indian clothing - description of sari, ghagra-choli, salwar-kameez, dupatta, pyjama and kurta.

Indian clothing is known for its colorfulness and grace. Outfits for women such as the ‘sari’ bring out the essence of feminism. Men’s clothes are suitable for the warm climate and comfort.

Although there is no strict uniformity in dress, certain trends in clothing prevails throughout the country.

The ‘sari’ is the most common outfit for women. This is a rectangular piece of cloth five to six yards in length. The material can be cotton, silk or synthetic. Silk ‘saris’ are embroidered at the borders, sometimes with real gold thread. Synthetic ‘saris’ are printed in various designs such as floral, multi-color shaded or animal prints. The sari can fit any size and if worn properly can accentuate the woman’s curves. There are various methods of wearing the ‘sari’. However, the most common method is wrapping the cloth around the waist, making pleats in the front and draping the final length around the shoulder. The ‘sari’ reveals the woman’s midriff and belly button and is worn with a ‘choli’. A ‘choli’ is a tightly fitted, short blouse. It has sleeves either up to the elbows or up to the middle of the upper arm. It accentuates the woman’s breasts. It has buttons either in the front or the back. The material used is cotton, silk or synthetic. In some parts of the country, women wear a ‘ghagra’ with the choli instead of the ‘sari’. The ‘ghagra’ resembles a skirt with sewn-in pleats secured at the waist with the length up to the ankles. This is again made of cotton, silk or synthetic.

Another common outfit worn by women is the ‘salwar-kameez’. A ‘salwar’ resembles a pyjama drawn tightly in at the waist with a string and is tailored in such a way that it tapers at the ankles. The ‘kameez’ is worn over the ‘salwar’. This is a long shapely outfit, which resembles a long shirt. The most common pattern has sleeves up to the wrists, slits on the sides, a mandarin collar with buttons in front. Instead of a ‘salwar’, women also wear a ‘churidar’. This is a tighter version of the ‘salwar’ accentuating the knees and ankles.

The ‘salwar-kameez’ and the ‘ghagra-choli’ are usually worn with the ‘dupatta’. This is a rectangle cloth made of very thin cotton or synthetic material used to cover the head and the chest.

Indian men normally dress more for comfort than style. Most common clothing for men is the ‘pyjama’ and ‘kurta’. In the villages, instead of ‘pyjamas’, men wear ‘lungis’. The ‘lungi’ is a rectangle cloth, usually made of cotton’, draped around the waist and pleated in the front at the groin.

Indian clothing, especially women’s outfits, are considered beautiful because of their colorfulness and uniqueness.

The Cultures of American Indian Tribes

An essay on the fascinating ancient healing practices of the Maya civilization in Mexico. Itincludes treatment for many aches and diseases.

Maya shamans (priests) performed superstitious rites for the purposes of healing, and bleeding was a common practice to cure illness. Bleeding (also called bloodletting) involves the cutting of the affected painful area of the patient using stingray spines, thorns, or obsidian blades, and allowing it to drain blood. Areas such as the ears, nose, tongue, lips, or genitals could also be pierced to induce bleeding for the ceremonies. It was thought that this would rid the person of their affliction, which he or she had brought upon himself/herself by some previously committed sin.

Some specific cures are very interesting, especially that of a toothache. This treatment included crumbling soot from cooking stones, wrapping it with cotton wool, and applying it to the broken tooth. An alternative to this was to take the tooth of a crocodile, grate it with fishskin and wrap in it cotton wool, and apply it to a throbbing tooth to cease the pain. An interesting method of tooth extraction is recorded by Ralph L. Roys in his book, The Ethno- Botany of the Maya, which describes the procedure as follows:

"Pulling a tooth. There is an iguana that is yellow beneath the throat. Pierce its mouth, tie it up and burn it alive on a flat plate until it is reduced to ashes. These ashes of the iguana you are to anoint. You shall set your forceps and then you shall draw the tooth without pain. Try it first on a dog's tooth, before you draw the man's tooth with the ashes of the iguana which is yellow beneath its throat."

In the same book by Roys, he mentions the solution to excessive sneezing as applying boiled orange leaves to the foot and body to prevent death from extreme episodes of sneezing. He proceeds to claim that the cure for insanity lies in a beverage of mashed testicles of a black cock, mixed with water and consumed daily before breakfast. The confidence with which these prescriptions are written, and the obscure ingredients and methods of application which the recipe requires, make these recommendations difficult for the modern reader to comprehend, much less have faith in. While doctors and patients today might scoff at such a prescription, the priests and shamans of Maya culture used what resources were available to them at the time. Their ideas were followed by the Spanish upon their conquest and some of their remedies are used to this day.

What is the Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act?

Created in 1990 for the purpose of protecting Indian, or Native American's remains and cultural objects. Information on tribes and affiliation.
The Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was instigated in 1990 for the purpose of protecting human remains, funerary articles and other sacred objects that can be affiliated with a Native American tribe. According to NAGPRA, the definition of a burial site is that area above or below ground where human remains are placed. It defines cultural affiliation as a common identity between an earlier group and a present day Native American tribe. This Act makes it illegal to excavate or otherwise disturb funerary objects and remains that are found on Federal or Tribal land. If remains are found and a tribal affiliation is determined, then the tribe must be given the opportunity to claim the remains. If an affiliation is not determined or the tribe does not claim the remains, the Secretary of the Interior will be responsible for their distribution or reburial.

If such objects or remains are to be removed from Federal lands, a permit must be obtained and if there is an operation in progress, such as mining or construction, and the remains are unearthed, then all activities must stop until the appropriate tribe and authorities are notified. If a claim is not made by the tribe, then a permit for removal must be in place.

NAGPRA also states that all agencies and museums in possession of Native American remains and funerary objects must create an inventory of all collections containing these items and make every attempt to find out their cultural affiliations. The agency or museum must search through their existing collections and document all remains and funerary objects, then they need to notify the tribe that they are in possession of such objects. Should the tribe demand the return of all or part of the collections, then the agency or museum must relinquish the items to the tribe. Should the tribe make the decision not to claim the collections in whole or in part, then the agency or museum must contact the Secretary of the Interior for instructions.

The Act includes the punishment of fines or imprisonment for up to 12 months for selling or buying Native American remains and objects without having legal possession of the items. A second violation can bring up to a five year prison sentence and/or additional fines.

NAGPRA has provided for a review committee to be activated for the monitoring of the inventories and the cultural identification of collections. This committee is created by the Secretary of the Interior and is to be made up of seven members that are not Federal officers or employees. The committee is responsible for reviewing the accuracy and fairness of the inventory and identification process, and for returning any identified remains or collections to their rightful tribal affiliate. Should there be any complaints or problems arising from this process, the committee will act as overseer and mediator to assist with solutions.

The committee can consult with the Secretary of the Interior on legal matters arising from NAGPRA. The Secretary of the Interior can also be included in the process of creating any regulations necessary to carry out the purpose of the Act.

History of Ottoman empire in Turkey

The history of the Ottoman Empire: it is said to have been founded in 1453 when Mehmed II captured Constantinople from the Byzantine christians, renaming the city Istanbul.

The reign of the Ottoman empire, despite the success of its expansionist strategy and the influence which this culture had upon a vast portion of the world, has been largely ignored by Western historians.

This is surprising considering that the Ottomans or 'Osmali' ruled a vast section of the middle-eastern Europe for four-and-a-half centuries under one lineage unbroken from the first ruler, Osman, who gave his name to the empire.

While the Ottoman dynasty was established in 1299 by Osman Bey in Sogut, a region east of modern-day Bursa, the Ottoman Empire can only really be said to have taken off a century and a half later at the fall of Constantinople. Consolidating power for the duration of the 14th century, the Ottoman's established a number of capital cities and fought off Mongolian invasions.

The birth of the Ottoman Empire itself, can be traced to 1453 when muslim leader Mehmed II Khan Gazi captured Constantinople from the ruling Byzantine christians. Constantinople, as it was known, had previously been the seat of the Byzantine Empire, famous throughout the globe for its trade in minerals, silk and other materials. By straddling the Bosphorus, the city linked Europe to Asia and presided over the trade route to the East.

Despite this advantageous position, Constantinople had begun to experience widescale degradation and was rife for the picking and an injection of new enthusiasm. The transfer of power also marked the begining of the end of the Byzantine Empire; once the Byzantine christians had lost their capital, the platform for their imperialist expansion was no longer stable and exposed the empire to attack.

For the Ottomans, however, their reign was just beginning. Renaming the city Istanbul, the Ottomans began to expand both north towards Hungary and east towards the Middle East.

The inspiration leadership of Mehmed II did much for the Ottoman cause as it expanded its presence.

Only 21 years old when he wrested control of Constantinople, Mehmed II, was reknowned as a warrior (the term 'Gazi' is still used as a term of respect in modern Turkey, denoting a warrior) with an unpredictable and often viscious temperament.

Reservations as to his notorious temper aside, Mehmed II revitalised Istanbul and dedicated considerable wealth to revamping a number of key centres throughout modern-day Turkey.

One can still find physical evidence of the Ottoman presence in cities such as Bursa, for a brief few years the capital of the Ottoman empire.

Istanbul, under his leadership, became a centre of intellectualism, attracting muslim scholars and creative talent from throughout the Arab and Asian world. The architecture of the city has been much trumpeted with the Blue Mosque, built during the reign of the Ottomans, still attracting scores of architectural scholars and tourists to this day.

Not that the Ottomans were content with limiting their influence to this region alone. The fourth Ottoman ruler, Sultan Suleyman, was the most influential imperialist ruler that the empire knew, extending the empire north into Hungary up to Austria, west into Morocco and Spain and into Damascus and Cyprus in the east.

Once the reign of the Sultan ended in 1566, however, the empire began to exhibit cracks in its previously invincible structure.

The empire began to suffer attacks from countries eager to reassert control of their land, and internal divisions as to the influence of muslim law.

Anti-Ottoman rebels fought against the rulers but were largely ineffectual.

When Catherine the Great of Russia regained control of the Black Sea region, the platform had been laid for the demise of the Ottoman empire. The Greeks, with the aid of the Russians and the English, began to make significant territorial gains, forcing the Ottoman's to recognise Greek independence.

The final death of the Ottoman empire can be said to have taken place in the 1920's when the modern Republic of Turkey was formed. Having originally entered the first World War as an ally of Germany, the Turks eventually surrendered to the allied powers, but in the subsequent negotiations were stripped of much land. It took a significant effort by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, considered the father of modern Turkey, to reassert control of Turkish land.

The Ottoman empire was finally abolished in 1920 in the Treaty of Sevres.

The Treaty of Lausanne finally established the sovereignty of modern Turkey, establishing the modern Republic with Ataturk at the helm and spelling an end to a 600-year dynasty.

What is a spanish matador and what does he do?

The art of bullfighting is a national treasure in Spain. What part does the matador play in this much-cherished sport of the Spaniards?

On the European isle of Crete, which has been inhabited for more than eight thousand years, there lies an unearthed drawing that depicts several men and women meeting head-on with a charging, snarling bull, then jumping over the beast’s back. This tell-tale picture, circa 2000 B.C., is the oldest clue we currently have in dating the history of bullfighting.

During the war of the reconquista, or reclaiming, Christians and Moors fought each other furiously for eight hundred years, both sides refusing to give up a fight whose victor would eventually claim all of Spain. In times of much needed respite from battle, weary knights and soldiers would sometimes call a truce, and instead of killing one another hold hunting contests to see which side could capture and kill wild beasts, such as bears. The majestic Iberian bulls were the only beasts that would not run from the hunters, however; instead of running, the bulls would charge again and again, never turning to flee from the danger of an almost certain death.

In time, these bulls were brought into villages by wealthy landowners who greatly desired the chance to watch a battle between man and beast. By doing so, they become known as the creators of the modern sport of bullfighting.

The Modern-Day Matador

In 1724, bullfighting was declared out-of-bounds to the Spanish aristocracy, who had always fought mounted on horseback. Because the commoners wanted to hold on to the sport but had no money for horses, those who were still allowed to participate did so on foot, dodging the bulls with the speed and grace of their own two feet.

Today’s matador does much the same, with varying differences to his ancestors’ style.

When a bull is first brought into the ring of the stadium, the matador’s assistant will wave a yellow and magenta cape to draw the bull’s attentions to himself. During this period of the fight, the matador takes advantage of the time allotted him and quietly observes the bull’s nature, speed, and mood, three factors with which he must acquaint himself before presiding over the event.

With the matador’s approval, the next phase can begin. At the sound of a trumpet, several picadors (fighters) now enter the ring and throw spears into the bull’s back hide, weakening and slowing it. This process lasts ten to fifteen minutes, and afterwards yet another trumpet is sounded, alerting the matador to remove his hat; it is after this that the matador (top bullfighter) bows, dedicating the death of the bull to the audience for whom he is performing.

After his dedication, the matador is ready to begin the dance between himself and the bull. This ‘dance’ requires many years of practice that will build the skill and courage required to become a professional bullfighter. His first duty is to draw the attention of the animal by waving the muleta, the crimson colored cloth he may hold in either his left or right hand. By doing so the matador is daring the bull to charge him, and at a moment at which only he is aware, will quickly pull the muleta away from his body in fervent hopes the bull will follow. Because this portion of the fight wears down the bull’s energy and instinct and allows the captivated audience the opportunity to watch the matador’s style, talent and courage, it is the longest part of the event.

Once the matador has proven his supremacy, he begins the final step of the fight, the killing of the bull. To do so, he stands no more than ten feet from the animal and slowly moves the muleta, securing the bull’s fixation on it while he readies his espada (killing sword), which is always held in the right hand.

With the bull’s attention on the muleta, the matador moves in with his espada at just the right moment, throwing the sword between the shoulder blades. If he hits his mark, the bull will immediately fall and die very quickly. If he does not, if the espada strikes bone, the matador will use a tool called a descabello that will be used to stab the bull in the neck, severing its spinal cord and causing instant death.

Matadors are usually presented trophies from the president after the death and defeat of the bull. Depending upon the bullfighter’s skill, he may be awarded one or both ears, the tail or the hoof of the animal. Upon this act, the audience will wave white handkerchiefs, beckoning the matador to cast his trophies into the seats. In return, the much-pleased fans offer honor and their appreciation to the matador by lilting flowers at his feet.

All about african fortune telling

Reading fortunes in Africa comes in several forms,depending on the region of Africa and the belief system.

In many cultures divination has played, and continues to play a significant part in religious life. While popular religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, look down upon and even preach against divination, African fortune telling has a particularly rich tradition that still thrives today.

The bulk of African fortune telling revolves around the culture’s desire to not only decipher personal destiny, but beyond this, to discover meaning in life. For most African cultures the two central figures in the divination process are the Nature Spirits and the diviners. Nature Spirits are powers that are not seen, but can be interpreted by the diviners to tell the future. The main Spirit Gods are represented by weather patterns, naturals formations found on the earth, and animals. The ability of a diviner to interpret the signs given by the Nature Spirits is the foundation of African fortune telling.

Human Diviners vary from culture to culture; in some locations only males can be diviners, in others mostly females assume the role. There are also cultures that allow the practice to be shared by both males and females.

A diviner may predict the future in a number of ways. The methods diviners use vary throughout the continent and in different tribes, however, there are some similarity which all cultures share. The use of oracles, for instance, is widespread. Oracles are small pieces of wood sculpted to take the shape of a god, animal, or natural structure. Each oracle is used for a different purpose, according to shape and symbolic significance. The most common oracles are friction oracles used to address ancestral spirits when an individual is facing a personal crisis or uncertainty. The wooden sculpture often takes the form of the Creator God, who is the central divine figure for African cultures. Often times the an icon will resemble a pregnant or obese woman, particularly if the reason an individual seeks council pertains to questions on fertility and the prospect of birth in the near future. Other oracles take the shape of animals. One particular oracle, called the itombwa, is carved in the shape of an alligator and used to answer yes and no questions. A diviner uses this piece when questioning the gods and depending on which side of the wooden sculpture is exposed, the answer is revealed.

A cousin of the oracle is a mini model of the human. These psuedo-oracles are used in the art of "Vodou", which is a popular religious practice in Haiti and elsewhere. While they are used mainly as a means of inflicting or cursing pain on another being, they can be used in the divination process as well. Observing the configuration of a Vodou doll after spells have been cast on it or after it has been tossed on the ground can help indicate future events to the eyes of a seasoned diviner.

In addition to oracles and Vodou dolls, several cultures use the configuration of tossed stones, sticks, or most popularly, gourds as a mode of interpreting the future. Other patterns can be used as an indicator of the future—from the movements of a mouse over a pile of bones to the pattern of fox tracks over a field of grass to the random movements of a spider casting a web. The trend of diviners seeking meaning in seemingly everyday occurrences is widespread in the African culture.

If the diviner is still having trouble seeing the future even with the use of oracles, configurations, or natural patterns, then he or she may consult the deceased. The deceased are sometimes called upon to guide the diviners in their quest to interpret the gods, but are in most cases, eager to assist. Since it is believed the deceased are closer to the gods they can see more clearly the events they wield for humans. The deceased, as relatives of the living, are interested in helping the diviners. The deceased may be invoked by the use of charms, potions, or spells, but often come to an individual willingly, either through dreams of manifesting themselves as pains in the shoulders and back area.

Some diviners, called Baule trance diviners, can only contact the deceased or make predications when they are in a deep state of trance. The trance, it is believed, sends the human form into a temporary state whereby he or she can more clearly see the signals the gods are sending.

Once the diviner—trance or no trance—sees the future, he or she forecasts it to the interested party. If there is a problem in the future that the diviner sees, he or she will likely provide a prescription. Prescriptions can take the form of spells, prayers, charms, mini-statues, herbs, or other oral ingestions. Regardless of the form the prescription takes, it is referred to as medicine
for its general healing intention and power.

Not all divinations result in the administration of medicine, however. Many divinations produce joyful and happy results. In these instances the diviner will offer a prayer or words of encouragement for the recipient, and in some cases the entire village will be congregated to share the good news. It is during these celebrations that one can fully appreciate the power of the diviner in the role of everyday life in African culture and how divination can influence a person, a family, and even an entire village of people.

Culinary cultures: all about thai cuisine basics

For the new cook and the practiced chef, an introduction to Thai food preparation. Includes ingredients, dishes, and tips for cooking.

Thai food is an increasingly popular fare served in storefront cafes and elegant restaurants throughout the country. Its aromatic and often spicy flavors are delicious testament to Thailand’s unique culture and environment. Thai food is not always hot, although many of its most famous dishes, including red and green curries, are very spicy and not for the timid.

The hot and humid Thai environment influenced its cuisine in a number of ways. Historically, food preservation was a problem in many tropical countries. Early gourmets soon learned that salt preserves, and citrus and chili peppers were strong anti-bacterials. Chilies especially were very important in making sure that the beef, chicken, or prawns in a curry or a rice or noodle dish didn't give people food poisoning. Modern beverages such as Thai iced tea developed in part because condensed milk would not spoil. While such concerns are minimized by today's more sanitary food preparation, the necessity of ancient food curing resulted in meals that also taste fantastic.

When dining out, you will see the unmistakable influence of Thailand’s neighbors in many dishes, especially China and India. Also, the interaction of different religions is made manifest in dishes such as Massaman, a yellow vegetarian curry adapted by the Muslim population of what once was known as Siam. Whether it is hot or mild, sour or sweet, however, authentic Thai food and drink is always a treat for the senses.

There are a few basics that need to be understood to enhance your enjoyment of this great cuisine. The first is the philosophy of Thai cooking. There is a reason why this food tastes the way it does beyond the availability of certain meats, foods, and spices. The cornerstone of Thai cooking is the relationship of five fundamental tastes derived from ancient Chinese cooking: bitter, sweet, sour, salty, and spicy. The relationship between these sensory building blocks can be seen, for example, in red curry (Gaeng Ped Neua) that is made with red chili paste (spicy), coconut milk (sweet), fish sauce (salty) and lemongrass or lime leaves (sour) among its ingredients. Thai sweet pork (Moo Wan) utilizes a palm sugar sauce (sweet) punctuated with fish sauce (salty) that results in a dish tasting very much like ham. Understanding these building blocks will enhance your enjoyment of Thai food and your navigation of the menu at your favorite Thai restaurant.

Classic Thai presentation is a multi-dish affair involving appetizers, soups, a rice or noodle dish, curry, and ultimately a sweet dessert. These are not courses in the traditional western sense and are often served all at once. The servings are meant to be shared. As is the case with many cuisines, it is difficult to order a complete meal at a restaurant because many of these dishes are now designed to be meals unto themselves. Usually, fixed price menus provide a way to sample the full treatment of a classical Thai meal and the interaction between the various dishes and the five cornerstones. If you can find a restaurant that offers this, it is well worth the visit.

Regardless of the menu, however, if your appetite allows it is a good idea to at least sample the range of flavors that Thai cooking presents. Spring rolls dipped in fish sauce, or a satay with its distinctive peanut flavor is a good start before ordering a red or green curry or a rice or noodle dish with spicy meats. Since all Thai food is derived from the five basic building blocks, thoughts of compatibility are not necessary. In other words, there is a culinary bridge that links a beef satay with a green curry with prawns, for example. While you might not consider ordering a beef carpaccio as an appetizer if you have a hankering for linguini with clams, the sweetness of the beef satay peanut sauce and the coconut in the green seafood curry are from the same building block. Order away!

When choosing a beverage, remember that Thai food does not easily lend itself to wines. On the other hand, traditional Thai beverages retain the same building blocks as do its food and offer a satisfying complement to your lunch or dinner. Thai iced tea is a remarkable drink, even in its most simple form. The combination of strong black tea sweetened by condensed milk is consistent with the philosophy of Thai food (sweet and bitter) and is compatible with a wide range of dishes. Other drinks that utilize sweet fruits are equally compatible if you have a taste for daiquiris made from exotic fruits such as guava or lilikoi (passion fruit). If you enjoy the hot stuff, whether in curry or a spicy chili-laden rice or noodle dish, an ice-cold Thai beer is always recommended.

Dessert at Thai restaurants can either be simple or elaborate. Coconut ice cream and various tropical fruit
infused sorbets or sherbets can be found on most menus. Fried bananas are also commonplace. A restaurant with a more authentic and extensive menu will offer additional fare such as Sungkaya a steamed coconut custard or various dishes using lychee fruit.

As is the case with many foods from the Orient, there are unique herbs and spices that are central to Thai cooking. Finding them is not always easy, although the upsurge of interest in Thai cooking has made many of these products readily available. If you are prepared to do some easy substitutions, you can still capture the essence of wonderful Thai cooking at home. Remember the building blocks and be creative and soon you’ll be fixing wonderful Thai dishes in the comfort of your own kitchen.